Hierarchy versus Equality (How People Relate with Others)

Again at the contracting stage, it is useful to gauge how the client relates to others:

‘In some cultures rigid hierarchies of power are accepted as desirable, whilst others prefer relatively flattened hierarchies’ (Ryde, 2009: 132).

Although the counselling relationship can perhaps never be fully equal ‘in the therapeutic context where the therapist/counsellor is already more powerful’ (Lago and Smith, 2003: 116), this potential power imbalance may be more problematic for a hierarchy-valuing client: ‘For instance, it could be unthinkably impolite not to give way to the opinion of a professional’ (Ryde, 2009: 132).

The counsellor must listen carefully and observe visual clues to check client understanding/acceptance, using immediacy to gently clarify any apparent mismatch.

Shame versus Guilt (How People Are Guided)

This pair of dimensions describes whether cultures are ‘outer-driven’ (i.e. await the shame of being judged by others) or ‘inner-driven’ (feel guilt through judging themselves).

People from the former may find it harder to move forward in the Seven Stages of Process (as developed by Rogers), in which, for example, those in Stage 2 ‘find it very difficult to accept any responsibility for themselves’ (Merry, 2014: 60) – though may consequently be unlikely to seek counselling anyway. Ryde (2009: 81) notes: ‘None of the white theorists I have come across has much to say about shame.’

High versus Low Context (How People Communicate)

Although cultures favouring high-context over low-context communication style  might appear to have greater awareness of spirituality etc., this may not be fully embodied – and could make such clients more ‘heady’, i.e. intellectual and thought-focused, with reduced visceral awareness of their emotions. This could make it difficult to build ‘relational depth’ (Mearns and Cooper, 2005).

Polychronic versus Monochronic (How People Interpret Time)

Because ‘what is considered punctual may change from country to county’ (Martin and Chaney, 2008: 34), those from polychronic than monochronic cultures may be less likely to be punctual for counselling appointments: ‘The word mañana, used in Latin American countries, and the word bukra, used in the Middle East, have a similar attitudinal meaning … that what cannot be done today will be done tomorrow’ (ibid).

It would be important for the counsellor to clarify the shared meaning of ‘punctuality’ during contracting – but equally not to assume that any subsequent issues with lateness for appointments were down to this, being open to other possible explanations (relating both to the client, e.g. having practical difficulties, reticence about counselling, low self-esteem, or desire to rebel; and to the counsellor, e.g. being offputting or unwelcoming to the client in some way).

Collectivism versus Individualism (How People See Self and Others)

Lago (2011: 287–8) observes that Iranians tend to value collectivism over individualism (‘“we” focus as opposed to “I” focus’).

It is important that the counsellor does not assess a client from a collectivist culture ‘as resisting and avoiding in the therapeutic process because of their tendency to a focus more on family dynamics’, as doing so ‘may suggest a Eurocentric bias’ (ibid: 119).

Religious versus Secular (How People Relate with a Deity)

Cultures may be religious or secular. While religion-based counselling services do exist in our largely secular society, they tend to welcome all – e.g. the website of the Philippi Trust (a Christian counselling agency) states: ‘Can anyone come? Yes! Whatever your background and whether you have a faith or none at all, you will be treated with respect at all times’.

The effects of a client being religious on the counselling process will vary according to the set of beliefs.

When dealing with clients that are obviously different from us, it is important to avoid ‘acting on the assumption that this is all they are – and never assuming that the ‘problem’ lies in the difference’ (Wilkins, 2003: 58–9).